By Ivan Lovrić
Introduction
Words do not exist in isolation. As Friedman (2008, p.129) notes, they ‘tend to live next to or near certain other types of items’. I could not think of a more representative lexical phenomenon than collocations – the habitual pairing of words – which, once proceduralised by learners, may well be what shapes them into truly competent users of English. Lewis emphasises that it is ‘collocational competence in particular, which allows students to read more widely, understand more quickly, and speak more fluently’ (Lewis, 2000, p.68). Thornbury similarly stresses that new words become productive only when integrated into a learner’s existing network of word associations (Thornbury, 2002, p.93).
High-frequency collocations form the backbone of everyday English. Lackman observes that the 200 most frequent words represent about 60% of spoken language (Lackman, 2012, p.4), highlighting the impact of teaching core collocations rather than isolated words. Building on this idea, focusing on high-frequency collocations offers practical benefits: low-frequency words are numerous, and it is learners who know high-frequency ones that can infer their meaning from context (Nation & Newton, 1997, p.240).
The Nature of Collocations
Collocations – combinations of words that naturally co-occur – include common examples such as make a decision, take notes, or do research (Gairns & Redman, 1986, p.37).
A striking feature of such examples is the role of de-lexicalised verbs – take, make and do – which carry little meaning on their own but acquire meaning from their collocates (McCarten, 2007, p.5), thereby allowing for seemingly endless word combinations. Lewis echoes this sentiment, describing de-lexicalised verbs as ‘among the most powerful pattern generators in the language’ (Lewis, 1993, p.143).
Indeed, collocational restrictions can appear arbitrary. Lewis notes: ‘Prices rise and fall; you can rise to the occasion but not fall to the occasion’ (Lewis, 2008, p.26). It follows that knowing which words combine naturally is essential for accuracy and collocations should thus play a significant role in teaching lexis.
Literal vs Figurative
Most collocations are figurative, in that institutionalised metaphors allow us ‘to conceptualise and talk about entities with vague and indeterminate boundaries, or which are abstract’ (McCarthy, 1990, p.28). Not unsurprisingly, then, learners who are accustomed to learning words in isolation may have difficulty with collocations. For instance, take advantage does not involve physically taking anything – rather, it means to benefit from an opportunity. Focusing learners’ attention on how figurative collocations are used in context may be a crucial step toward helping them think in English, rather than translating words literally.
Collocations and Cognitive Load
Teaching collocations reduces cognitive load by providing learners with ready-made language units. Lewis maintains that the ‘spoken lexicon consists of many prefabricated, but arbitrary chunks’ (Lewis, 2008, p.20), which, once stored in memory as complete units, allow learners to focus on meaning rather than grammar, supporting fluent production.
Receptive skills are similarly affected by collocations, as reading and listening difficulties often arise ‘not because of the density of new words, but the density of unrecognised collocations’ (Lewis, 2000, p.54). Therefore, helping learners to develop collocational awareness – to notice them in context – would surely enhance learner comprehension, allowing them to process information faster and with greater ease and confidence.
Classroom Strategies
- Highlight Collocations in Context
Using authentic reading or listening texts, ask learners to underline or highlight collocations as they encounter them, as this will draw their attention to how words naturally combine in real contexts. Afterwards, you can engage the class in a discussion distinguishing literal from figurative meanings. For instance, in the phrase ‘break the news’ learners can compare the literal action of breaking something with the idiomatic use related to announcing something important or sensitive (Lewis, 2008, p. 20). - Record Collocations as Chunks
Encourage students to record collocations as whole units, such as ‘make a decision’ or ‘heavy rain’ rather than isolated words. This chunking process reduces cognitive load during production and helps learners retrieve these combinations more fluently when speaking or writing. You might provide learners with a dedicated ‘collocation notebook’ or digital log where they can group expressions by topic or verb. The goal is to shift vocabulary acquisition from isolated memorisation to meaningful language blocks that mirror authentic use. - Move from Controlled to Freer Practice
Begin with controlled tasks such as gap-fill activities, collocation matching exercises, or sentence reordering to ensure accuracy and understanding. Once learners demonstrate confidence, transition to more open-ended tasks that promote fluency. These can include sentence creation using target collocations, role-play dialogues, or even short story writing. For example, after practicing collocations with make students might write a short dialogue using make a mistake, make a complaint, and make a decision. This progression aptly supports both form and function (Lewis, 2000, p. 68). - Group Collocations by Verb or Theme
Organise collocations around high-frequency verbs like make, take, do, have, and give, or group them thematically (e.g., travel, emotions, work). This scaffolding helps learners recognise patterns and draw comparisons. For instance, presenting take a break, take notes, and take a chance together highlights how a single verb collocates differently depending on context. Thematic grouping also supports lexical priming, helping learners build semantic networks and recall expressions more readily (Papathanasiou, 2009, p. 313). - Raise Reading Awareness
Select texts rich in collocational language – such as news articles, opinion pieces, or short stories – and ask learners to identify both familiar and unfamiliar collocations. Teachers might first model this by underlining examples on the board and discussing why they work. Over time, learners can begin to annotate texts themselves, focusing on how collocations contribute to meaning and tone, which will help them develop the noticing skills essential for autonomous learning.
(Lewis, 2000, p. 54) - Use Retrieval Practice
To reinforce memory and recall, cover one part of a collocation (e.g., ‘__ a complaint’) and ask learners to supply the missing word. This can be done as a warm-up, a flashcard game, or a digital quiz using tools like Quizlet. Spaced repetition of such tasks strengthens long-term retention and moves collocations into active vocabulary. - Personalisation and Fluency Development
Encourage learners to integrate newly learned collocations into their own speaking or writing. This can involve tasks like writing journal entries, giving short presentations, or creating dialogues using target expressions. For example, after learning make an effort and take responsibility, learners might write about a personal experience where they had to do both. Peer interaction and subsequent feedback would reinforce correct usage and gradually help learners internalise the rhythm and register of natural English.
Conclusion
Collocations bridge the gap between grammatical correctness and natural, idiomatic English. Focusing on high-frequency combinations equips learners with ready-made units for fluent communication.
As Lewis notes: ‘Collocations aren’t extra vocabulary – they are vocabulary’ (Lewis, 2000, p.68).
By combining explicit instruction with strategies such as noticing, retrieval, and personalisation, teachers can provide learners with structured guidance that enables them to read and listen more efficiently, and communicate with confidence. This can also lead to more successful implicit learning, as learners who are aware of the nature of collocations will be more likely to spot them – and learn from them – in the wild.
Bibliography
Friedman, L. (2008). Lexical Patterns and Language Learning. London: Continuum
Gairns, R., & Redman, S. (1986). Working with Words: A Guide to Teaching and Learning Vocabulary. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lackman, K. (2012). High-Frequency Words and Collocations in English. New York: Routledge.
Lewis, M. (1993). The Lexical Approach: The State of ELT and a Way Forward. Hove: Language Teaching Publications.
Lewis, M. (2000). Teaching Collocation: Further Developments in the Lexical Approach. Hove: Language Teaching Publications.
Lewis, M. (2008). The English Verb. Hove: Language Teaching Publications.
McCarten, J. (2007). Teaching Vocabulary: Lessons from the Corpus, Tasks and Techniques. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
McCarthy, M. (1990). Vocabulary. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Nation, P. & Newton, J. (1997). Teaching vocabulary. In J. Coady & T. Huckin (Eds.), Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition (pp. 238–254). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Papathanasiou, M. (2009). Lexical Bundles in English Language Teaching. ELT Journal, 63(4), 313 321.
Thornbury, S. (2002). How to Teach Vocabulary. Harlow: Longman.
Biography
Ivan is a 29-year-old English teacher from Croatia with DELTA, CELTA, TKT, and almost five years of international teaching experience, including at IH Santiago de Compostela and IH Toruń. He is particularly interested in fluency development, lesson design, and exam classes.
